Electric Vehicles vs Hydrogen Cars: A Question of the Future

Introduction

The increase in the usage of gasoline vehicles as transport has led to a drastic surge in global warming. Harmful automobile exhausts such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide released into the atmosphere have caused a severe impact on the air we breathe. This has resulted in the need for vehicles that would produce zero emissions (Reportlinker, 2020). In the last few years, automobile companies like Tesla, Nissan, and Toyota have brought new technologies to the market, mainly electric vehicles and hydrogen cars. These two technologies are more popular in aiming to reduce global emissions caused by conventional vehicles. This paper intends to analyze and compare these two modes of transport, based on their ecological, financial, and scientific merits.

An electric vehicle (EV) uses the concept of electric propulsion (Chang, 2009). It utilizes energy stored in its rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, which can be recharged through a charging station. There are three main components of an EV: the energy storage unit, the controller, and a propulsion system. The energy storage unit of an EV is a lithium-ion battery. It generates the electricity needed to power the car. The controller regulates and controls the power of the motor. Lastly, the propulsion system converts the electrical energy generated by the lithium-ion battery into mechanical energy to propel the car (Redding, 2023).

Hydrogen vehicles, also known as hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs), have a similar mechanism to the electric car, but they use non-fossil fuels such as hydrogen gas to power their motor. Also, they don’t need recharging; instead, they require refueling, a process like conventional cars. They use the chemical energy of hydrogen to produce electricity, which comes from an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen (BMW, 2013). This energy is then used to power the motor. The only exhaust of an HFCEV is water vapor.

Although both vehicles claim to produce no emissions at all, both have their advantages and disadvantages that will be thoroughly discussed further.

Methodology

For this research, we compiled a list of parameters divided into two main categories: Manufacturing and Consumer adaptability, where these 2 technologies differ and analyze them in depth.

1: Manufacturing: Energy Generation, flow and Efficiency

All types of cars use energy to run. To compare EVs and hydrogen vehicles, we must examine the fundamental processes which allow for these vehicles to exist. The extraction process is the process in which a car’s “fuel” is created. Then there are various other processes involved such as storage and transportation of the car’s fuel or battery system. Measuring how well each of the above processes perform results in determination of the overall performance of the type of vehicle.

Hydrogen Car (HFCEVs)

A specific challenge that needs to be addressed concerning the extraction process for hydrogen vehicles is the production of hydrogen. The hydrogen element does not exist in its natural form, which increases production costs and time. Hydrogen is a very reactive element that does not exist as a single atom. It has less energy per unit volume than all other fuels, and therefore, transporting, storing, and distributing hydrogen to the point of consumption is more costly on a per-GGE (gasoline-equivalent gallon) basis (Kane, 2020). Furthermore, the energy value of the hydrogen generated is approximately 80% of the energy value of the power required to break a single water molecule. Because hydrogen has a low volumetric energy density, it is expensive to transport, store, and distribute for use, resulting in certain energy inefficiencies (Woodford, 2023). Other difficulties of hydrogen management are boosting energy efficiency, preserving hydrogen purity and limiting hydrogen leakage (Volkswagon, 2020).

The hydrogen used in HFCEVs is primarily produced through steam methane reforming, which involves the reaction of methane with water to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This process is energy-intensive and results in significant greenhouse gas emissions.

While it is possible to produce hydrogen through electrolysis of water using renewable energy, this method is currently less common due to higher costs. Therefore, the overall environmental impact of HFCEVs depends on the method of hydrogen production. Thus, hydrogen vehicles are not completely green.

Generally, hydrogen is stored in its liquid form in fuel tanks for convenient storage and transportation purposes. The liquid hydrogen produced is compressed and chilled under high concentrations and pressure before being transported to a hydrogen station. The entire process is only about 90% efficient and reduces the initial power accumulated. Additionally, transporting the hydrogen and storing it in its fuel tank takes up 10% of energy as well.

Pure liquid hydrogen cars require the use of technology that consumes fossil fuels, which thus contributes to global warming. As a result, equipment such as “hydrogen-ready” boilers utilize fossil gas and continue to emit the carbon emissions that drive global warming and increase greenhouse gas emissions (AKAIO TV, 2018). Even more, immense amounts of power and energy are necessary to transport liquid hydrogen; this energy can be derived from fossil fuels making hydrogen vehicles non-environmentally friendly.

Now, for the fuel cell to work, it must use hydrogen in its gaseous state. This is where the process of electrolysis comes in, where the liquified version is split into pure hydrogen and pure oxygen gas using electricity. This method is only 75% efficient, which requires about 25% energy loss (Volkswagen, 2020). The fuel cell is partitioned into the areas called the anode, where the pure hydrogen is stored, and the cathode, where the oxygen is stored. Before the hydrogen molecules can react to oxygen molecules, it has to be transferred by electrolyte, where the protons of H2 easily pass through. The negative charge of the electrons, now not able to be passed through, is transported to the cathode with a wire. Electron transportation generates electricity, as well as creating excess water waste as hydrogen and oxygen react (AKAIO TV, 2018). The energy efficiency of the fuel cell generating electricity through H2 fuel is estimated to be about 60%.

In a hydrogen car hydrogen is combusted into fuel in this process oxygen generates electrical energy and that energy is directed into the motor, or the battery as needed. In fuel cell technology a process known as reverse electrolysis takes place in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen fuel in the fuel cell.

In reverse electrolysis, hydrogen reacts with oxygen in the fuel cell the hydrogen comes from one or more tanks built into the vehicle while oxygen comes from the air yet the only result of this reaction is electrical energy, heat, and water is emitted through the exhaust as water vapor, so hydrogen cars are locally emission-free. The electricity generated in the fuel cell of a hydrogen engine can take two routes, and that depends on the demand of the specific situation. It could either flow to the electric motor and power the FCEV directly or charge a battery that stores the energy until it’s needed for the engine. The electric motor converts the car’s kinetic energy back into electrical energy and back into the backup battery.

Stored in the control power unit, the acquired electricity is released in appropriate amounts, depending on the different tasks. Attached to the brakes and accelerator are sensors, allowing the unit to provide the required amount of electricity for the car to function (Dvorak, 2020). The transfer of energy is nearly 95% efficient in its process. Overall, the efficiency is about 38% with the necessary tasks to function a car with a hydrogen fuel cell (Kane, 2020).

Hydrogen is crucially different from hybrid EV’s because hydrogen cars tend to produce electricity themselves. The vehicle doesn’t get its power from a built-in battery that can be charged from an external power source instead hydrogen cars have their power plant onboard which contains the electric engine, fuel tank neck, hydrogen tank, fuel cell, and battery.

Refueling of an HFCEV is done through a refueling station, by transporting highly pressurized hydrogen gas into the vehicles, somewhat like the gas stations for conventional cars.

As hydrogen is stored as a liquefied fuel in fuel tanks, hydrogen cars require to be refueled, similarly to traditional gas and diesel cars, but slightly advanced. At a hydrogen refueling station, they are set up with an above-ground storage tank, compressor, cooling system, and then the original refueling valve. The storage tank can refuel at least 60 vehicles at a time (Volkswagon, 2020). In addition, to maximize the compression to its highest ability, the compressor presses the fuel down at least 94% percent more (AKAIO TV, 2018). As a gas, hydrogen tends to expand during its transfer, which can increase its temperature. For minimal expansion and keeping the hydrogen fuel colder, the cooling system reduces the temperature to at least -40 degrees Celsius (Dvorak, 2020). Before reaching the valve, this entire process is completed for the car’s best efficiency. The fuel is then transferred from the valve to the tank electronically to the maximum capacity of 55 cubic meters (Kane, 2020).

During the use phase, HFCEVs produce no tailpipe emissions, only water vapor, which is a significant advantage over conventional gasoline vehicles. However, the upstream emissions from hydrogen production need to be considered.

Electric Vehicle (EVs)

EV’s are the most common fully electric cars. These cars are powered by batteries that realize high energy density and reliability by using Ni-Co-Mn (nickel - cobalt - manganese) positive electrode material and laminated cells (Dvorak, 2020). The Ni-Co-Mn positive electrode material has a layered structure, increasing battery storage capability by allowing lots of lithium ions to be stored. Laminated-structure battery cells have a high level of cooling performance and a simple structure, saving space and reducing the overall size of the battery pack. Due to its high durability and reliability, the battery capacity warranty guarantees 160,000 km or 8 years. And most EV’s include regenerated brakes that recover braking energy and store it as electrical energy. This helps with improving the mileage of the vehicle.

The battery functions by having positive and negative electrodes, that are once immersed in electrolyte, have a stream of negatively charged lithium ions transferring to the positive electrode. In its reverse reaction, the now positively charged ions travel back to the negative electrode, switching the initial process. As a result, the reverse action is done once the battery is charged, while the forward action is done when the battery discharges. However, working as a rechargeable battery, both functions are allowed to happen simultaneously, circulating enough electrons to create electricity for the vehicle (Kane, 2020). This process is highly efficient, creating up to 90% energy efficiency.

In a battery-electric vehicle, the lithium-ion battery has a higher energy density than other rechargeable batteries, thus a lower mass, as well as reduce storage (Lipman, 2002). They can also last for a long time - about 10 to 20 years. To prevent the overheating of the battery, they also contain controllers which regulate and maintain the battery temperature. All being precisely managed, this process can take up to about 5% of energy, albeit still 95% efficient (Volkswagen, 2020). Once exhausted in EVs, the batteries can be reused in factories, and are thus environmentally friendly (Corby, 2021).

Unlike the sensors used in the fuel-cell-operated car, the electric vehicle works in a simplified system of wires connected to every functioning part in the car (Texas Instruments, 2021). This allows the electricity to constantly flow to all the necessary areas at all given times, and less energy efficiency is lost to function the car and its motors, totaling 5% of the loss (Ajanovic & Haas, 2020).

The electricity used in EVs is generated through the extraction process using a combination of emissions-intensive fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable energy. The environmental impact of EVs largely depends on the source of the electricity used for charging. If the electricity is generated from renewable sources such as wind, solar, or hydro, the overall emissions are very low. However, if the electricity is generated from fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas, the emissions can be significant.

During the use phase, EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, which contributes to improved air quality, particularly in urban areas. The production of lithium-ion batteries used in EVs involves significant energy consumption and resource extraction, leading to environmental impacts. However, advancements in battery recycling and the use of renewable energy for battery production can help mitigate these impacts.

Even for EV’s, it is not simple enough to say that EVs are completely beneficial to the environment. Many of the environmental impacts occur before the EV leaves the factory. For example, there is a 59% increase in the levels of CO2 emissions generated from electric car production than the levels of emissions in the production of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (Volkswagon, 2020). Moreover, according to the European Environment Agency, electricity usage for battery production accounts for 35-50% of overall EV manufacturing emissions (AKAIO TV, 2018). Lately, creating lithium-ion batteries, which are used in electric vehicles, is a carbon-heavy process, and therefore, it has led individuals to suggest that EVs will barley reduce carbon emissions in the following years. In nations like India, two-thirds of electricity is produced from coal (Dvorak, 2020).

2: Consumer Convenience: Recharging, refueling & Adaptability

With approximately 18% or 1.4 billion people in the world owning a vehicle, the automobile industry is ever-growing, with a CAGR of 4.8% (Dvorak, 2020). In the US alone, there are 61,000 charging stations for EVs, whereas there are only 62 refueling stations for hydrogen cars (Global Risk INTEL, 2019). To suffice for the limited hydrogen refueling stations, hydrogen vehicles have a greater range (approx. 300 miles).

Hydrogen Car (HFCEVs)

Because of the necessary components of the hydrogen refueling station, these are very scarce, especially when compared to an electric charging station. The cost required to create one entire refueling station itself is about $1 million - $2 million, which is after taking into consideration the country or region’s size (Kane, 2020). The infrastructure for hydrogen cars currently isn’t developed to the level where the decentralized use of HFCEVs can be accomplished. The implementation of adequate hydrogen refueling stations throughout the community poses a significant challenge, as there are only a couple as of now. In addition, the transport and storage of liquified hydrogen present another issue as well, since it requires the usage of power and energy which is derived from fossil fuels (Kane, 2020). However, car companies like Toyota and Hyundai are in the main production line of HFCEVs, aiming to create less expensive, lighter, and more efficient HFCEVs.

All current models of HFCEVs exceed 300 miles of range on a full tank (Global Risk INTEL, 2019). The refueling time is quicker than that of an EV since they charge at a similar time to gasoline cars. However, it costs nearly $80 to refuel an HFCEV, for one pump. The majority of HFCEVs can carry about 5-6 kgs of liquified hydrogen but can go twice the distance of a conventional car with the same amount of gas (TWI-Global, n.d.). The average ranges of HFCEVs are 312-380 miles for one refueling.

Electric Vehicles (EVs)

The main challenge in the infrastructure of EVs is that they need easy access to charging stations. For most drivers, this starts with charging at home or workplaces. An important differentiator of EVs in comparison to HFCEVs is that you do not have to go to a special vendor to fuel it up. It can be charged from any electrical outlet (Texas Instruments, 2021). Another key challenge would be the long hours of charging time that EVs need. They can take almost 50 times more than the time it takes for HFCEVs to refuel. However, with companies like Tesla and Nissan, the availability of charging locations and the speed of charging are improving rapidly.

To recharge an EV, which can also be a plug-in hybrid (PHEV), or a battery-electric vehicle (BEV), there are three different methods to accomplish this (Reportlinker, 2020). The PHEV is suitable for a Level 1 standard household outlet, but the charging rate is much slower. This process requires a lot of power, a minimum of 110-120 volt. This method is mainly recommended for vehicles with generally low ranges or ones that are used less by the driver’s preference.

The Level 2 system uses a more powerful, 240-volt outlet, using a different type of plug-in system Because the J1772 plug is compatible with both a BEV and PHEV, the installation for this outlet is generally required at the driver’s house for efficient charging, which ranges around the cost of $2000-$4,000. L2 charger has a higher charging completion rate than the L1 system. This is the typical system found in public recharging stations, like in malls and restaurants, and is often found free of charge, being the common and preferred recharging method. It costs approximately $17 for one recharge (TWI-Global, n.d.). The downside is that the recharging takes 10-12 hours at home, which can be inconvenient for long-distance journeys

The final, fastest charging method is the Level-3 system. They are referred to as “rapid chargers” and are the quickest way to recharge an electric vehicle, while also being the most expensive. The volt range for this outlet requires up to 380 to 440 volts; the higher power range allows super-fast charging. At this rate of power and charging, the battery cell can be 80% within an hour (Energuide.be, 2021). However, unlike the level 2 charger, the cost of getting a level-three charged to a BEV or a PHEV can range to $6.80 - $16.90 (Morris, 2020). The at-home installation is not recommended nor possible due to the high voltage range, which could be dangerous.

However, technology is changing rapidly, and there are a few EVs on the market that have a fast-charging capacity (40-50 minutes) that can go for longer distances with one recharge (Global Risk INTEL, 2019). With the largest range being 405 miles on a single charge,

The cost of refueling or recharging for both HFCEVs and EVs depends on a few factors, such as electricity, hydrogen prices and the location. For instance, in the US, the average cost of electricity is approximately 13.31 cents per kilowatt-hour. Whereas in Europe, the price is a little higher, at 26.28 cents per kilowatt-hour. Therefore, recharging the EVs will vary depending on the location. However, hydrogen prices are more consistent and range between $14-$16 per kilogram, with some fluctuation depending on the location and supply chain (Hella, n.d.).

Global interest in hydrogen fuel cells as a renewable clean energy source is growing, and hydrogen fuel cells are widely regarded as an effective, zero-emission option for powering vehicles, train services, boats, and passenger cars. Additionally, the market for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) could be optimal for fuel cell research and implementation (Ajanovic & Haas, 2020) Along with their quick refilling time and long driving range, hydrogen fuel cells are well-suited for this industry. They also have more energy per unit mass than a lithium battery or diesel fuel. Hydrogen vehicles can have more energy available without considerably increasing their weight by expanding the capacity of the hydrogen tank: an essential issue for long-haul truckers with severe weight penalty regulations (Hella, n.d.). Moreover, hydrogen vehicles (HFCEV) have already grown more affordable in recent years because of technological advancement (Pandey, 2023).

Automobile manufacturers have started investing heavily in the production of electric vehicles. Volkswagen will invest around $50 billion through 2030 to expand the number of electric vehicles produced, while other automakers such as Ford, GM, and Mercedes-Benz are also investing in increasing their electric vehicle output (Global Risk INTEL, 2019). This increasing investment not only reflects present trends but will continue to expand in the future as political and economic patterns evolve. Large automobile markets such as the United States and the European Union are clear targets of potential expansion of EVs, while East Asia’s rising demand for personal vehicles makes the area a crucial growth market (Yadav, 2013). Many countries’ governments are even considering eventual bans on fossil-fuel cars in the 2030s. France, Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands are among the European countries contemplating similar restrictions. This would be a great asset to the business. Ultimately, by 2050, the overall driving expenses of both vehicle categories will be equalized, and BEVs may even become cheaper.

Ultimately it is consumers who decide which of these two types of vehicles becomes more mainstream. EVs/BEVs have smaller mileage and longer charging time, and they are more suited for daily short commutes to offices, groceries shopping and have charge points in home, offices and shopping complexes. On the other hand, HFCEVs are more suited for long distance travel and other types of heavy vehicles given that there are ample refueling stations on the way. At a snapshot of time today it seems EVs have found a niche market already in cities and metros.

Analysis

To achieve a holistic comparison of both automobiles, we must analyze all the advantages and disadvantages of both.

Based on energy consumption, EV’s are more energy efficient as they only require the conversion of current in their motor, making them nearly 75% energy efficient. For HFCEV’s, the transport of liquified hydrogen involves a set of processes such as pressurization and electrolysis (Wikipedia, n.d.). This makes HFCEV’s approximately 25% energy efficient.

EV’s take a lot of time to recharge (~50 times more than HFCEV’s) and their range for one tank is less. However, they have many charging stations, and they have a reduced cost of recharging. HFCEV’s on the other hand take very little time to fuel, and their range is almost twice that of EVs, but have a very high cost of refueling. There are only 62 refueling stations as compared to 64,000 EV charging stations across the USA (Hydrogen Fueling Stations Locations, n.d.)

In terms of manufacturing, companies like Tesla, Nissan, and Chevrolet are currently the leading manufacturers of EV’s (Lipman, 2002). On the other hand, companies such as Toyota and Hyundai, mainly being the manufacturers of HFCEV’s, have a lower manufacturing cost.

There are also a few independent factors such as the ability of lithium-ion batteries to be recycled in factories after they are utilized in EV’s.

As exemplified throughout the paper, EV’s and HFCEV’s exhibit specific advantages that make them the future of transportation as well as disadvantages that present a barrier for these vehicles. In an electric vehicle, instead of fuel combusting to provide energy to an engine, a lithium-ion battery is used to supply electricity to a motor.

In a hydrogen car, either the fuel cell is used to create electricity to run the car, or the hydrogen is combusted into fuel. In an electric car, instead of fuel combusting to provide energy to an engine, a lithium-ion battery is used to supply electricity to a motor. Furthermore, since hydrogen is densely stored in the car, it can travel longer than EVs at full tank/charge. Unlike electric vehicles that are plugged into an electricity grid for recharging, to “refill” a hydrogen car, its hydrogen fuel cell needs to be topped up via pressurized tanks available at specific service stations. Moreover, hydrogen is much more convenient as it takes less time to pump into tanks (~ 5-10 minutes) just like regular fuel, but electric cars require more time to charge. Given that pure hydrogen element doesn’t exist in its pure form which means increasing the production cost and time, along with the production of fossil fuels meaning it contributes to global warming. Ultimately it is the consumers’ adaptability which will take these technologies to mainstream.

Conclusion & Future Work

Throughout this paper, we have explained each car’s functions, efficiency, refueling process, as well as their infrastructure in ecological and financial terms; and analyzed how this will lead to the final result. In conclusion, even though both the hydrogen fuel cell car and electric vehicle function in their different ways to produce zero emissions, electric vehicles are more beneficial to us soon. These vehicles are effective in all ways discussed, including energy-saving, cost-efficient, and most importantly environmentally friendly, with a higher range of advantages than hydrogen cars. However, as the hydrogen car industry is continuously evolving to new methods and adding upgrades, these results are likely to change. In the future, this research will allow the use of more zero-emission vehicles to come in use to reduce the negative impact on the environment, as well as lead to new technology to create other solutions to global warming.